The Dairy Processing Industry In Mauritius Environmental Sciences Essay

The Dairy Processing Industry In Mauritius Environmental Sciences Essay Nowadays, the dairy industry is categorized into two distinct production areas. The primary production of milk is principally on farms, whereby cows and other animals, such as goats, sheep, and among others, are bred for the production of milk for human consumption. The processing of milk has for main objective of extending its saleable life and keeping quality. This can be achieved by a number of food transformation and preservation techniques. Milk can be heat treated, can be prepared variously in a dehydrated form like butter and milk powder, thirdly by freezing, for instance, ice cream and other frozen desserts and finally by fermentation like yoghurt, cheese, ghee, kefir and among others. 1.1.1 Profile of the dairy processing industry in Mauritius Mauritius has one of the strongest economies in Africa, with a per capita GDP close to U$3,900. Its economy has been heightened greatly over the past 15 years and the main sectors, which have driven the performance, were the textile, tourism and sugar industry. However, studies prepared by the Imani Development Consultants (2004), for the Regional Agricultural Trade Expansion Support Program, have demonstrated that the local dairy is a very small sector with only about 5000 dairy cows, producing about 4 million litres of milk, which represent only 5% of the total requirements. Hence, Mauritius does not have the resources and capacity to produce milk efficiently. About 1 million litres of the milk produced, through reconstitution from powder milk, is marketed as pasteurised milk by the Agricultural Marketing Board and other dairy industries. Likewise the Imani Development Consultants (2004) added that the consumption trend of most dairy products has considerably increased over the past 5 years from 12,800 tons in 1995 to 22,000 tons in the year 2002. This trend is expected to continue with the rising standard of living of the Mauritian population. There is now a growing market for UHT milk despite the fact that milk powder is widely preferred by the population. Australia and New Zealand remain the principal suppliers of dairy products to Mauritius. There are various renowned dairy products brands in most supermarkets and retail shops. Although Mauritius is not a milk producing country, it has three main dairy products manufacturers, namely Maurilait Ltd., INNODIS Ltd., and Laiterie de Curepipe, which are producing mainly yoghurt, ice cream, sterilised milk and flavoured milk, using imported raw materials. 1.1.1.1 INNODIS Limited INNODIS Limited is one of the main food and grocery distributors and producers in Mauritius. It is a large company engaged in different sectors, ranging from poultry, rice milling, consumer goods, frozen foods, dairy production and among others. The company has invested profusely to bring over a high performance in quality and reliability of its products and this has nowadays led to an annual turnover of Rs 2.5 billion (Anon2, 2010). The dairy Plant of INNODIS Ltd was set up since 1952, with an Ice Cream business activity, manufacturing Nestle products under the brand name Dairymaid. It has nowadays developed close partnerships with South African licenses and has integrated other production lines of yoghurt, nectars, and sterilized milks under the brand name of DairyVale, Ceres, Twin Cows and Ole respectively. Ice Cream production includes 45% of the total production, followed by 30% of yoghurt production and a remaining of 25% for nectars and sterilized milk (pers. comm., 2010). The dairy plant of INNODIS Ltd has adopted a food safety management system, for instance, the HACCP Codex Alimentarius Standards and adheres to the Nestle and Ceres Standards in order to keep up consistency in quality of products and work within the factory. The installed capacity of the dairy processing plant is 2million Litres of milk per year and is presently being used at 90% of its capacity milk (pers. comm., 2010). 1.2 Dairy Processing Waste 1.2.1 Water consumption Water is the principal raw material and cleaning constituent in the food processing sector. In the dairy processing industry, substantial volumes of water is used for cleaning equipment and work areas to maintain the hygienic conditions, in cooling departments like in cooling towers and in energy production for example in boilers. Water also accounts for a large proportion as raw material in the reconstitution of milk powders for the production of liquid milk, yoghurt, ice cream, butter, cheese and among others. Rates of water consumption can vary significantly based on the scale and capacity of the plant and type of processing, whether batch or continuous processes. The type of mix being generated, the methods and cleaning equipments being in use as well as considering the human factor with inference to the practices of the operatives on the production departments can also affect drastically the consumption of water in the dairy processing. A typical range for water consumption in reasonably efficient plants is 1.3-2.5 Litres water/Kg of milk intake (UNEP, 2000). In most parts of the world, fresh water is becoming scarcer with the evolution of climatic phenomenon like droughts and el lino and as such, the cost of water is rising and the true environmental costs of its supply are being taken into consideration. Water has thus become an increasingly valuable commodity and its efficient use is being now emphasized on drastically. There can be effective water management strategies for reducing water consumption and this can involve technological solutions or equipment upgrading. Moreover, a dairy plant waste load can be curbed down considerably by monitoring the amount of water used and reducing the amount of product lost into the effluent. This control will all depends upon the machine set-up and the operators practices. Stopping wastage at its source will therefore be less costly and more practical than end-of-pipe waste treatment. By doing so, the water expenditure can be declined up to 0.8-1.0 Litres water/kg of milk intake (UNEP, 2000). Techniques described in the publication made by the UNEP in 2000 are well defined accordingly: Continuous rather than batch processing is better to be introduced as it prevents frequent cleaning. Automated cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems allow less dismantling of equipments and therefore less use of water. Flow meters are placed at different spots of the processing line to control and monitor the flow of water for manual cleaning procedures. High pressure rather than high volume is preferred for cleaning surfaces. Compressed air can be used also. Re-circulating or re-using clean water which may have been used for rinsing to other activities which is not a commodity for cleaning and processing. 1.2.2 Waste water discharge Water discharges are produced mainly in the dairy industry by processing operations but also by clean water which are released from cooling water and steam and evaporator condensates. This discharge ultimately becomes the effluent, which contains predominantly milk and milk constituents which have been lost from the process. According to studies made by the UNEP (2004), milk loss can be as high as 3-4% with the main source of loss being residues which remain on the internal surfaces of vessels and pipes, draining of mix from machines before filling, spills during emptying tanks and overflowing of vats or hoppers. Likewise, the organic load of the effluent varies greatly with the type of cleaning practices being applied. Batch processes will normally require a greater and frequent cleaning. Thus, the COD level can reach up to about 8 Kg/m3 milk intake. 1.2.2.1 Characteristics of waste water and their impacts on the environment The characteristics of the waste water generally vary from different types of dairy products owing to their different constituents and ways of processing. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Organic components which is within the dairy waste water consists of mainly proteins like whey and caseins, lactose and fat and these can affect the ecosystem depending on their solubility and biodegradability to lead further to an organic pollution of the environment. These can be determined on a laboratory scale by using the BOD and COD factor. Microorganisms, specifically bacteria, require and degrade organic nutrients for their survival and simultaneously they consume oxygen. The oxygen used can be measures and the BOD and COD. BOD is measured as the amount of oxygen that is consumed by bacteria while decomposing waste over an incubation period of 5 days at a temperature of 20  °C. The COD can be enumerated as the oxygen equivalent for the decomposition of organic matter and oxidation of inorganic chemical such as ammonia and nitrite. One litre of whole milk is equivalent to approximately 110 Kg BOD5 or 210 Kg COD (UNEP, 2000). Moreover, mandatory regulations from the Environment Protection Act 2002 (EPA) have shown that there should be a minimum of 120 mg/ L of COD and 40mg/ L of BOD (Appendix 1). Hence, it is a must to abide by the legislation as prescribed. Whey loss One major contributing element to a dairy plants effluent load is the cumulative presence of high concentration of milk, which contains a large proportion of the salty whey. Whey is also added as an inclusion the mix composition of ice cream. Hence, with these losses occurring during pipe work is uncoupled during tank transfers or equipment is being rinse, there can be greater release of the whey concentrates and other isolates like lactose and caseins to the effluent system. The main concern with whey loss is that it increases the BOD level of the effluent system. Hence, it is a must that green manufacturing practices are taken so that milk or any other dairy products and intermediates are not drained out into the effluent system. Other measures currently being used now is that whey, being used as an additive in certain dairy products, can be re-processed from the dairy industry waste. An investigation carried out in 11 dairy plants by Ostojic and others (2005) have demonstrated that 78.5% of whey, in the form of milk, has been discharged into the waste water contributing to the organic pollution of the environment. This contamination can therefore be prevented by transforming the whey into food, animal feed and pharmaceuticals. Process of vacuum concentration and filtration needs to be performed to obtain the whey proteins. Table of waste water characterisitics -still compiling normative data 1.2.2.2 Waste Water Treatment Options Absorption Ponds Absorption ponds are popular for dairy wastewater disposal but as with the ridge and furrow systems they are not constructed as much today because of concern about compliance with environmental laws. Typically absorption ponds were used by the smaller dairies where there is small wastewater volume. As these small dairy plants have closed, many of these absorption ponds have been taken out of service. Absorption ponds can still be used; however, it requires internal treatment of the waste water. Activated enzymes can be added to degrade the organic waste. Then, the waste water is collected by waste water carries to be further treated by the public or municipal treatment plant. Biological Tower This could be considered a modern filter where wastewater is pumped down over a support covered with a media which allows microbiological growth. The microorganisms or bacteria consumes the organic waste of the wastewater as food and eventually sloughs off for collection into a clarifier. The biological tower is typically used as an initial treatment unit before sending the effluent for full treatment by the public authority. Activated Sludge Activated sludge is a conventional process for treating dairy industries waste water using air and a biological mixture composed of bacteria and protozoan. Air or oxygen is introduced in a primary treated effluent combined with the organisms used to develop the biological floc. In this way, organic matters like biological constituents of milk, ammonia, nitrates and phosphates are removed and converted into carbon dioxide and nitrogen eventually. The effluent is the clarified and is collected for disposal. The sludge or waste mud produced can be also treated. A typical activated sludge system can be shown in the figure below: Figure 1 An Activated Sludge Process (Beychok, M., 2007) Aerated Lagoons Aerated lagoons have been a common method of wastewater treatment for dairy plants that directly discharge to surface water like rivers and sea. Generally these systems are several large ponds connected in series with floating surface aerators or submerged air diffusers. 1.2.2.3 Treatment of waste water in Mauritius The effluent from the dairy plants should normally be treated at some extent on the site or sent to the local treatment systems. For instance, in Mauritius, the St Martin waste water treatment plant treats the wastewater from the Upper Plaines Wilhems as well as the regions of Lower Plaines Wilhems. The plant has a designed capacity of 69,000 m3 per day. The treatments consists of a primary step whereby there is screening of the effluent. Then, the secondary treatment constitutes of disintegration and removal of grit (Institute for Environment and Legal Studies, 2010). The final treatment phase is disinfection using ultra violet technology. Currently, the St Martin treatment plant has a capacity of approximately 25,000-30,000 m3 per day and this treated water is used mostly for irrigation purposes (Anon, 2007). 1.2.3 Energy consumption According to research carried out by the United Nations Environmental Program (2000), about 80% of a dairy plants energy is catered by the combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural oil or gas) in a boiler system to generate steam and hot water for evaporative and heating processes. The remaining 20% is met by the public electricity for running electric motors, refrigeration and lighting. The age and capacity of a plant, the level of technology and automation and the number of products being manufactured, largely affect the energy consumption of a dairy industry. Processes, which involve intensive heating, concentration and drying, for instance spray-dried of milk powder, entail much energy. Nevertheless, milk, which needs partial heat treatment and packaging, requires less energy. A typical range for energy consumption in plants processing milk is 0.5-1.2 MJ/kg of milk intake (UNEP, 2000). A good energy management program will identify uses of energy for a dairy factory and can highlight areas for improvement. Substantial savings of energy can be easily made with no investment of capital, via simple housekeeping and green productivity practices. Energy savings of up to 25% are possible through switch-off programs and the fine tuning of existing processes, and an additional 20% can be saved through the use of more energy-efficient equipment and heat recovery systems. By doing so, energy consumption for the processing of milk can be reduced to as low as 0.3 MJ/kg of milk intake (UNEP, 2000). Some energy-saving initiatives are listed below, and these can represent a best practice for the dairy industry. An energy management circle can be set-up within the dairy plant to identify issues and monitor them. Energy-efficient lightning can be installed. Efficient refrigeration compressors can also be set-up. There should be regular tagging and measurement of energy consumption of each machine and this can easily help to indentify bottle-necks within the system. Steam and air leaks and other pipelines should be repaired as soon detected. 1.2.3.1 Greenhouses Gases (GHGs) With the profuse combustion of fossil fuels (coal, kerosene, fuel oil, diesel oil, etc.) nowadays to make power to run industrial machines, heat water and operate distribution vehicles, a potential amount of GHGs is being evolved in the atmosphere. leading to the so-called drastic environmental effect, Global Warming. According to the IPPC (1997), water vapour is the most important GHG, contributing 36-70% to global warming; carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane add to 9-26% and 4-9% respectively, while ozone contributes 3-7%. As related to fossil fuel combustion, CO2, methane and nitrous oxide are the most important GHGs. The problem with GHGs is that over the last few years the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, especially CO2, has greatly increased. Greenhouse gases are like a blanket around the earth, making the atmosphere warmer. They absorb the heat from the earth, and re-radiate it to space, and the other half goes right back to the earths surface. Thus, with the slight increase in temperature in the atmosphere, the circulation patterns of the ocean and wind currents are altered causing climatic changes. 1.2.4 Solid wastes and packaging Dairy products such as milk and yoghurt are typically packed in plastic-lined paperboard cartons known also as tetrapak, High density polyethene (HDPE) cups, plastic pouches or reusable glass bottles. Moreover, ice cream is known to be filled in HDPE tubs and cups as well as paper-lined cones. Other products, such as butter and cheese, are wrapped in foil, plastic film or small plastic containers. Milk powders are commonly packaged in multi-layer kraft paper sacs or tinned steel cans, and some other products, such as condensed milks, are commonly packed in cans. Breakages and packaging mistakes cannot be totally avoided. Improperly packaged dairy product can often be returned for reprocessing or recycling. However, the packaging material is generally discarded. At INNODIS Dairy Plant, it is known that bottles used for sterilized milk can be recycled, yet HDPE cups and tubs remain unprocessed and disposed at Mare Chicose Land Fill (Pers. Comm., 2010). 1.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life cycle thinking is an essential element to sustainable development. It is about going beyond the traditional focus on production site and manufacturing processes so to include the environmental, social, and economic impact of a product or a process over its entire life cycle [United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 2007]. The producer has therefore for responsibility for their products from cradle to grave and should aim at developing products, which have enhanced performance in all stages of the product life cycle. The life cycle management tools expand from Cleaner Production Assessment (CPA), Cumulative Energy Requirements Analysis (CEPA), and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). All these techniques helps in the implementation of the green concept, namely the 6 Re Philosophy, which are defined by UNEP (2007) furthermore below. Figure 2 6 Re Philosophy throughout the product lifecycle (UNEP, 2007) 1.3.1 Definition of LCA Life Cycle Assessment is a methodological technique that applies life cycle thinking in quantitative way on the environmental analysis of activities associated to products, processes or services. A holistic focus will be placed on products/ services by assessing the upstream to downstream activities of their process flow. Therefore, LCA determines the potential environmental sequentiae of products, processes or services, throughout its life cycle, i.e., from raw material acquirement to production, usage, and finally disposal. This is the so-called cradle to grave approach (Environment, Health and Safety Committee, 2005). The Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) (Boudouropoulos et al., 1999), has well defined the Life Cycle Assessment as an important environmental management tool used to evaluate environmental burdens associated with a product, process or an activity, by identifying and quantifying energy and materials used and wastes released to the environment, to assess the impact of those energy and materials uses and releases on the environment, and evaluate and implement opportunities to affect environmental improvements. The assessment includes the entire life cycle of the product, processes, or activity, encompassing extraction and processing of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/re-use/maintenance, recycling and final disposal. Hence, in all activities implicated during the life cycle of a product or service, resources are consumed from the environment and wastes are generated back into the environment. This can be illustrated in the schematic diagram below. Figure 3 The life cycle of a product with the input of resources and output of waste (Chen, 2008) LCA has its roots in the 1960s, when the scientists who became concerned about the rapid depletion of fossil fuels, established it as a move towards understanding the consequences of energy consumption. The concept of environmental LCA was further developed from the idea of comprehensive environmental assessments of products, which was conceived in Europe and in the USA in the late 1960s and early 1970s (Hunt, 1998). It is a relatively new and cutting-edge environmental decision support tool and young discipline, as it provides quantitative environmental and energy data on products and processes (Mwangome, 2009). Although still under development, LCA has been standardised by the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) as an element in the ISO 14000 series. The principles and guidelines of the LCA are found within the standards of the ISO 14040; the ISO 14041 to ISO 14043 describes the methodology of the LCA process. 1.3.2 Principles of the LCA Generally, an inventory of relevant inputs of resources, like water, raw materials including packages, energy and fuels, and outputs of detrimental wastes such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, solid wastes, nitrates and phosphates, released to the environment, are identified, quantified and compiled. Their potential burdens on the environment and ecosystem are determined and evaluated, and immediate measures and practices for improvements specific to the objectives of the assessment are found and assessed for use. Through such a systematic overview and perspective, the shifting of a potential environmental burden between life cycle stages or individual processes can be detected and possibly avoided. To be able to carry out the methodology of the LCA, a functional unit of the product should be taken and it is defined by the reference unit of the product being in study, for instance 1L of bottled water can be evaluated from cradle to grave. The sum of each impact at each specific step or stage of the process flow help to provide an assessment score to determine the hotspots of the entire life cycle of the process. Therefore, measures to mitigate environmental impact have to be prioritized and emphasized on the hotspots. 1.3.3 Life Cycle Assessment Methodology The life cycle assessment occurs in four main phases which fully explains the different steps and order for it to be carried out. Phase 1 Goal and Scope Definition The first stage is specifically the planning which implies defining and describing the product, activity, and process to be analyzed. The aims of the assessment are established and the life cycle steps and impact categories like energy or water use are identified and reviewed. Phase 2 Life cycle inventory analysis This stage involves identifying and quantifying inputs like energy, water, materials and land usage and the outputs releases to the environment like air emissions, solid waste, water discharge, energy lost during the entire lifecycle. Phase 3 Life cycle impact assessment At this phase, the consequences of the material consumption and environment releases to human health and the eco-system, like acidification, global warming and ozone depletion are evaluated. Table : Description of some lifecycle impact categories (Narayanaswamy et al., 2002) Lifecycle Impact Categories Description Global Warming The release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) have a warming effect on the atmosphere is known as global warming. Acidification Acid gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide have the ability to produce acid rains when condensed and this therefore increases the acidity of the land and soil and cause even damages of buildings and other infrastructures. Eutrophication Releases of phosphates and nitrates in the underground water or in rivers can cause algae to bloom out, endangering the freshwater ecosystem. Human toxicity Some pollutants such as dioxine or dichlorobenzene can be absorbed in food stuffs and cause the death or disability of humans. Dryland salinity Clearing of native lands can cause the increase of seawater logging catchments areas rising the salinity of the land. Phase 4 Life cycle Interpretation The findings from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are combined together so as to reach conclusions and recommendations which are consistent with the goal and scope of the assessment. The most significant impact and hotspot in the life cycle of the product, process or activity are simultaneously identified. 1.3.4 Applications of Life Cycle Analysis Life cycle assessment has had a wide application in the dairy industry and has started from farm to fork. In dairy farming, LCA has been used specifically in the quantification of greenhouse gases (GHGs), particularly in countries like New Zealand, Australia, Canada and Netherlands. Moreover, pertaining to milk processing activities like butter, yoghurt, sterilized and pasteurized milk, spray-dried milk, ice cream and among others, studies have not been done at a scientific level but also by reputated international industries, such as Unilever and Nestlà ©. The aim of these multi-national corporations is to mitigate their misuse of resources and pollution problems and have noticed several positive economic and environmental outcomes (Narayanasawmy et al., 2002). It has been utilized in different formats. Many companies have used LCA as for establishing an eco-labelling scheme and therefore communicating about the environmental aspects about a particular product or service to consumers and stakeholders. Likewise, it is a useful tool to develop business strategies and policies and amplify the market shares. When combined with strategic decision models, LCA can be applied as an important supporting tool for business managers. Moreover, Life Cycle Assessment can be applied as a product and process improvement and design and thus allowing companies to comply with their local environmental regulations and laws. 1.3.4.1 International Studies based on LCA A life cycle assessment was applied to the dairy industry in Mainland Portugal in 2005. The objective of the research was to evaluate the milk production and agriculture practices using the LCA. The goal of the LCA also consisted of identifying the relative contribution of each one of the different cow milk products, for instance, milk, yoghurt and curd cheese (Castanheira et al., 2005). The functional unit was 1L of raw milk. The boundary of the lifecycle flow was at raw milk processing, whereby packing and delivery to consumer were not considered. In the inventory analysis stage, the impact categories considered were mainly global warming, followed by photochemical oxidation, eutrophication and acidification. Results have shown that the production of milk for consumption has the greatest consequences on the environment due to 49% global warming, 51% acidification and 57% eutrophication with 60% release of ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4). In the milk production process meant for consumption, there was also a great impact from COD and nitrates, which has been seen as the main source of contamination of underground rivers. As from the curd cheese production, there was high emission of carbon dioxide, which is normally the principal contributing factor of GHGs in Portugal. This is owing to the high consumption of different forms of energy during the milk transformation to cheese (Castanheira et al., 2005). Yoghurt production had the least burden on the environmental in the Mainland Portugal with only 6% contribution of COD to waterlines. In addition, it was seen that most burdens are found at the raw milk production in the lifecycles of all milk for consumption, cheese and yoghurt flows. Another study was performed in Italy by the ENEA (Italian Agency for new Technology, Energy and the Environment) and ERVET (Regional Agency for the Development of Emilia-Romagna), whereby the whole lifecycle of butter production was investigated (Masoni et al., 1998). The main objective of the study was to stress on the difficulties underwent by the Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and try to establish a simpler methodology for LCA. Optimization or resources like water, energy and reducing wastes in terms of solid wastes, emissions of GHGs, and contamination of water were also focused. The functional taken was 5Kg butter delivered in 250g lot, under two alternative primary packaging, one by polyethene coupled with paper and secondly, aluminum foil integrated with a waxed greaseproof paper. The steps evaluated were from cream production to post-consumer waste management, using the Simapro software. The sensitivity analysis conducted by Masoni and others (1998) for polyethene packaged butter revealed less accurate data can be used for most ancillary material processes, without impairing the overall inventory results. For instance, it was found that about 80% of water and 55% of energy were wasted at the raw material stage, with a total emission of approximately 55% CO2 and 50% NO2, and released of 53% of solid waste and heavy metals in waters. The emissions and heavy metal contamination were greater at the butter production compared to raw material processing, distribution and waste management. The solid wastes disposal was however drastic during the raw material processing. Moreover, the LCA study has not been completed for the cheese in aluminium packaging. It has been finally observed that a shortage of resources like capital, technological levels and awareness to environmental management can be limitations for an approach towards LCA as a decision-making tool for SMEs. Whilst investigating the environmental impacts of the LCA in the Kenya, Mwangome (2009) has restricted her study to the energy consumption only. The importance of the research was upon aiming the operation efficiency based on the size of the studied dairy companies against the transportation process in the chain. The functional unit was allocated to 1Kg of processed milk. The LCA methodology was utilized to investigate the energy balances between inputs and outputs and from data obtained the environmental consequences were processed as carbon dioxide. The farming stage was observed to be the hot spot with the most consumed energy compared to the steps in the life cycle. It was therefore seen that Diesel was the main element contributing to the high emission of CO2, though wood and electricity were also a commodity for energy provision to dairy plants. Hence, this observation has helped to find measures to curb down the use of fuels and therefore bringing up eco-efficiency within food supply chains. Likewise, Netherlands is known to be a principal producer of milk for ready use. Observations have been made that the emissions of greenhouse gases and c

Love or Fame: Which is More Important?

The issue regarding which is more important, love and family ties or fame and political power are issues that are always present in every generation. Well, which is really more important that we should devote our lives in search for the more important thing? Is blood really thicker than water? It is a subjective topic in which persons have different experiences and stand about the subject matter. This paper aims to answer this question by referring to three different epic plays: Oedipus the King and Antigone by Sophocles, and Aeneid by Virgil. It is also important to look at the values and actions displayed by the characters of the stories and to analyze whether they are still applicable in our contemporary time. In the story of Antigone, Haemon must choose between her love for Antigone and the fame and political power that await him if he obeys his father. Now Haemon is facing a dilemma because of the conflict between his love and his father. The same choice goes for Antigone for she wants to give her brother the honor of being buried in the right way. However, doing so would mean that she must disobey King Creon’s order. Disobeying the king does not only take the opportunity to be the princess by marrying the king’s son, Haemon, but her own life as well. But Antigone and Haemon decided to follow their hearts. In the end, Antigone killed herself. Knowing that his love is death, Haemon also decided to end his life. Thus, their value for their love ones cost them their own lives. However, they still gain the respect and sympathy of the people of Thebes. It can be said that the actions of Antigone and Haemon are not applicable in our present time. Although there are several movies that portray the same idea, this rarely happen in reality. It is a very rare case in which lovers decided to end their lives since it is impossible for them to be together. They can be considered as martyrs rather than heroes because of the act. Antigone also displays the kind of courage and determination that is greatly needed in our society today. Although she is a woman, she defies the odds and even the king for what she believes is right. Adding to the fact that she lives in the period when woman are considered inferior to man. This kind of courage is really needed by the present generation. Not only woman but men as well that have the courage to stand up and are willing to sacrifice their own lives in order to make a change. Today, although woman are accepted by our society and are ‘said’ to be equal to men, there are still some times that they are afraid to speak out and fight for their rights. Also both men and women are sometimes afraid to question some of the things that they find unjust in the society. They are afraid to face the consequences and are unwilling to make a change to improve social order. This characteristic is really needed in our society today, the courage to fight for what is right even if the whole society is against us. If only there are those like Antigone that are willing to give it all in order to make a change, I’m sure that our society will be a better place to live. On the other hand, King Creon cannot consider himself victorious. His persistence and determination to exercise his power over the people of Thebes had a considerably great cost. Not only had he lost the sympathy of the people of Thebes and the approval of the gods but the life of his son and wife as well. His authority blinded him and the result is loosing the persons that he values the most. If our present leaders will demonstrate the same reason and behavior like that of King Creon, the people will surely revolt and take their powers and authority away and give it to someone more deserving and just. The people will surely not tolerate such actions. In the Aeneid, Dido falls in love with Aeneas. They live together that makes Dido thinks that they are really husbands and wives. However, due to Aeneas vision of building a great city, he left Dido. Thus, Dido killed herself using Aeneas own sword. This action by Dido can also be considered as inappropriate in our time. Having that wealth and power is what everyone wants and throwing it all away together with your life is a very foolish thing to do. The same thing also goes for Aeneas, staying beside Dido ensures that a good future awaits him. No one would dare to exchange a wealthy living to a future that is unknown especially putting his or her own life on the line. But Aeneas is in search of greater glory and power. He pursues his desire to build a strong city. Indeed, he was able to build a great city and fulfill his destiny. He was a successful warrior, leader and founder and was able to fulfill a great vision. Still, things had not been easy for him. He also lost some of his love ones including his beloved wife and father. On the story of Oedipus, Oedipus chooses love over power. Although his known father Polybus is the King of Corinth, Oedipus decided to ran away from Corinth, sacrificing his title as the prince and the opportunity to be the future king. The fear of killing his father and marrying his mother had been the basis of his actions. In order to protect the people that he loves and to thwart the destiny that had been foretold about him, Oedipus lost everything that can be considered of great value, the easy and good life that he has in Corinth. In the end, he blinded himself and left Thebes without anything because of the words that he had given and as a punishment for all that he had done.   T oday, such punishment is not applicable and no one will also have the courage to do such thing. There are so many ways in which you can pay the wrong things that you had done and doing something like what Oedipus did is something unimaginable.   Death would be more acceptable than to suffer in the same way like Oedipus suffers. In the case of Queen Jocasta and King Creon, no one would abandon his or her child because of a prophecy. Abandoning a child at an early age is a very terrible thing to do. Yes there are times that we consult things like tarot reading, fortune telling an the likes in search for the answers to our questions about the future, but these visions are never considered as the primary basis of making decisions especially when life is involve. The respect given by the characters to the members of their family is also needed in the contemporary time. Today, youths are said to be losing respect especially to their parents whom they owe everything. Respect is a very important component of building a strong family ties. Also, respect for the authorities is needed in building a strong nation. Conflicts and wars arise because of the lost of respect to those who have the authority and to the right of every individual to live a peaceful life. In the three stories, those who value their family and love ones so much ended up in misfortune. The same thing goes for those who wanted to protect and achieve power. Thus, to search for love and for power both have negative consequences. To pursue love means to put your own life in the line and to face several hardships, to pursue power means to endanger the lives of the persons that you love and be left alone. Whether to choose love and family over fame and political power is really a big decision. You cannot have the best of both worlds. To pursue love means to let go of powers and fame and vise versa. Also we cannot really determine which is important, whether to choose love and family ties over fame and power depends upon the situation. What is important is that we do not only consider our own benefit in making the right decision. Also the stories show that to pursue love and power is not wrong, however living your life to attain just one of them is sure to cost you a lot. In making a decision we should both consider the heart and as well as the mind in order to come up with the right decision. Reference GradeSaver LLC,. (2007). The Aeneid. Retrieved December 8, 2007 from http://www.gradesaver.com/classicnotes/titles/aeneid/fullsumm.html GradeSaver LLC,. (2007). Oedipus the King. Retrieved December 8, 2007 from http://www.gradesaver.com/classicnotes/titles/oedipus/section3.html GradeSaver LLC,. (2007). Antigone. Retrieved December 8, 2007 from http://www.gradesaver.com/classicnotes/titles/antigone/section3.html         

Democracy Becomes A Way Local Governments As...

DEMOCRACY FINDS A WAY Local Governments as Laboratories of Democracy 1. Introduction In 1988, toward the end of his presidency, Ronald Reagan reminded a group of governors gathered at the White House that â€Å"part of federalism is recognizing that the States are laboratories of democracy.† (Reagan 2013, 235). It is a phrase that is often used. It can be attributed to Justice Brandeis, who in his dissent in the case of New State Ice Co. V. Liebmann wrote: To stay [meaning to judicially prohibit] experimentation in things social and economic is a grave responsibility. Denial of the right to experiment may be fraught with serious consequences to the nation. It is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a single courageous state may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country. (New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann 1932, 386–387). Brandeis strongly supported federalism and in particular the prerogatives of state and local government (Tarr 2001). He supported them because he believed that the tendency towards centralization did not necessarily lead to efficiency or improved outcomes (Tarr 2001). Likewise Reagan’s â€Å"New Federalism† advocated an expanded role for states and sought to encourage them to innovate solutions on their own rather than waiting for Washington to hand them the answers (Lester 1986). But others would argue that centralization is necessary, a view reflected inShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Government On Our Life Essay1653 Words   |  7 PagesEffects of government on our life As a citizen of the United States of America it is easy to get caught up with your day to day life and not realize everything going on around you. If you sit back and think about all the ways government affects you, you will be amazed. 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Childhood Vaccinations Why They Should Be Mandatory - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 523 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/03/13 Category Sociology Essay Level High school Tags: Childhood Essay Did you like this example? Introduction It is no secret that America has become a great melting pot of people. With such diversity comes the question, how do we keep our children healthy and safe from illness? Many question the safety and benefits, or lack thereof, of childhood vaccinations. Are they truly safe? Are they necessary? The answer is YES! The benefits far outweigh the risks of vaccinating our youth. Childhood vaccinations should be mandatory to those able to receive them to keep our future generations healthy. Vaccines are among the greatest, and most effective ways to prevent infectious diseases. And while its natural to want to understand the potential risks of vaccinations, it is also crucial in understanding the benefits. A parent will never realize know how many times their child will in contact with a vaccine-preventable disease or how many times their child will make use of their vaccine-induced immunity. Vaccinations are considered one of the greatest public health successes of the last century (Immunization). The primary benefit of vaccinations is that it prevents disease. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Childhood Vaccinations Why They Should Be Mandatory" essay for you Create order Incidence rates in the spread of vaccine-preventable diseases are at an all-time low. This low can be attributed directly to the invention of vaccines. While the diseases we vaccinate against have dropped, they have not been totally eradicated. This is why it must be mandatory that any able-bodied child should be vaccinated (Immunization). Vaccines can spare a childs life. In light of advances in medicinal science, children are now be able to be safeguarded against more diseases than any time in recent memory. A few infections that once harmed or murdered a large number of children, have been eradicated totally and others are near eradication, basically because of safe vaccines. Polio is one case of the incredible effect that vaccinations have had in the United States. While it was once one of the most dreaded illnesses, wreaking havoc across the country, there are no more instances of polio being reported in the US, all thanks to vaccines (Mandatory, 2015). Vaccines saves lives and protects our future generations from disease. They protect the people we care about. Vaccines not only promote our bodies power to prevent and heal, they also protect those whose bodies are not able to prevent and heal themselves. When a child is vaccinated, they prevent disease from being spread to others. Individuals, children and adults, with weakened immune systems depend on the healthy population to get vaccinated to help keep the spread of disease low (Immunization). Conclusion Not only do vaccines save lives, they are also cost effective and can save families time and money. When a child becomes ill due to a preventable disease, it creates a costly impact on the family as a whole. It can mean absenteeism from school, costly doctor visits, being admitted into the hospital, and parents often having to miss work to take care of the sick child. Prevention should always be the first option in protecting children, because it is much cheaper than searching for a cure after the child has become ill. Most vaccines are covered by insurances and even low-income families now have affordable access to these life-saving vaccines (Mandatory, 2015).

Estimating the demand analysis of fast food meals Speech or Presentation

Essays on Estimating the demand analysis of fast food meals Speech or Presentation Demand Estimation: Combination Meals due Demand Estimation: Combination Meals Question a The quantity of combination 1 meals demanded per week depends on the meal’s price and advertising expense. Therefore the model can be specified as: Where Q is the quantity of combination 1 meals consumed from the two hotels per week P is the price of combination 1 meals A is the advertising expense ÃŽ ±,ÃŽ ²1,ÃŽ ²2 are estimators and ÃŽ µ is the error term. Using the data in table 1, the regression results using excel software are as shown on the table below. Therefore, the model is estimated as Question b The OLS method is suitable for this analysis. Note that, there are two independent variables; P and A which are strictly exogenous. Although the price of the meals is influenced by the prices of competitors, data for competitor’s prices isn’t provided and thus price is taken as given. Secondly, the independent variables are not correlated (Cov (P, A) =0 and Cov (P,ÃŽ µ) = Cov(A, ÃŽ µ)=0). Generally, the model is in line with all other OLS assumptions. Question c From the regression analysis, the model was estimated as Question d Where ÃŽ ± = 100626, implying that holding price and advertising costs constant, 100626 meals will be consumed weekly. The intercept has p-vale of 3.42*10-6 which is less than 0.05, and hence the estimator is statistically significant to the model at 95% confidence ÃŽ ²1= -16392.7, hence holding advertising cost constant, a reduction in price by a unit increases quantity of meals demanded by 16392.7 and vice versa. The negative sign implies a reverse impact. The coefficient is statistically significant to the model (p-value = 0.0023 Ë‚0.05). ÃŽ ²2 = 1.576 with a p-value of 0.011, means that ceteris paribus, a unit change in advertising costs changes the number of meals consumed by 1.576 in the same direction. The coefficient is statistically significant at a confidence level of 95% but not statistically significant at a confidence level of 99% (0.01 Ë‚ 0.011Ë‚0.05) The significant F is not very small (= 0.000551) implying that the model was correctly specified in that ÃŽ ²1≠ ÃŽ ²2≠  0 (at least one of the coefficient is statistically different from zero. R squared measures the goodness of fit. From the analysis R2 = 0.2638, which implies that the explanatory variables used only accounts for 26.38% of the changes that Q (dependent variable incurs. This value is too low since a greater percentage of change in q (73.62%) is explained by variables not included in the model, hence terming the model unfit. Moreover, when adjusted for degrees of freedom, P and A account for 23.37% of all changes of Q (adjusted R2 =0.2337) Question e In theory, demand is affected by several other factors in addition to price and advertising expenses. Therefore, the model would be improved by increasing the number of exogenous variables. Question f Using and the mean values i.e p = 3.5067 and A = 10008.94 Then Q = 100626 - 16392.7 *3.5067 + 1.576 *10008.94 = 58915.80835 The price elasticity is given by Using the mean values = - 0.9757 Therefore, a unit percent change in price results to 0.9757% change in quantity demanded in the reverse direction. Note that the percentage change in quantity demand is less than proportionate. Therefore since demand is relatively inelastic, the company can consider increasing prices so as to increase total revenues. The advertising elasticity of demand can be obtained as; = 0.26774 A 1% change in advertising cost results to a 0.26% change in number of meals consumed weekly. Notably, demand is relatively inelastic to advertising costs hence the company should minimize their advertising expenses and focus on other strategies that significantly impact on quantity demanded. Question g Given p = 4.15 and A = 18,000 Using Q = 100626 - 16392.7 *4.15+ 1.576 *18,000 = 32624.663 Question h Given Q = and A = 18,000 And = = $6.14 Bibliography Dwivedi, D. and Dwivedi, D. (2009). Essentials of business economics. Noida, U.P: Vikas Pub. House Pvt. Ltd.

Personal Statement. The programme of Translation and Interpretation Free Essays

Some people consider translation as a kind of jobs only but for me, it is a meaningful form of cultural communication. Therefore, I would like to apply to your university for the programme of Translation and Interpretation in order to make my dream comes true. Having majored in Translation and Interpretation as an undergraduate, it brings me new perspectives about translation that it not only translates from one language to another, but also the culture. We will write a custom essay sample on Personal Statement. The programme of Translation and Interpretation or any similar topic only for you Order Now This makes translation a real challenge. Nevertheless, I dare to embrace challenges and I find fulfillment after completing various translation assignments. Also, I have a passion for it. However, my skills in translation and interpretation are far from good. Therefore, I would love to further my knowledge of language and develop skills in translation through this programme, and I could take my enthusiasm and turn it into my further study. On the other hand, when compare with other colleges, your college is not only focus on practical skills but also theories of translation. I think this is better as theories help us to identify translation problems and justify strategies in order to have better translations. Therefore, I would like to apply to your college for this programme instead of others. Since I am studying Higher Diploma in Translation and Interpretation, I have learnt some basic techniques and theories of how to translate. Besides, I practice all these skills and theories by applying them into assignments and projects. As a result, I will be more able to master this subject than others. Learning new languages is one of my interests . I learnt Japanese and Korean when I was in form three. Now, I am taking a course for learning Spanish and I think these are relevant to this programme. Just like liver Wendell Holmes has said â€Å"Language is the blood of the soul into which thoughts run and out of which they grow†. As language provides an insight into all aspects of a countries culture and this is what translation is about, the ability to speak in different languages helps me to study this programme in a more effective way than others. By undertaking this programme, I expect to see myself become a well-trained specialist in this field as my future career, who can make many meaningful contributions to translation and interpretation. Therefore, I have much appreciated being able to achieve my goal by getting into your college for studying this programme. How to cite Personal Statement. The programme of Translation and Interpretation, Essay examples

Tourism as a Force for Peace - Free Sample

Question: Discuss about theTourism as a Force for Peace. Answer: Introduction The tourism industry is among the fastest growing industries in the world (Kester 2014). According to Horner and Swarbrooke (2016, p 32), tourism involves travelling for pleasure to places outside an individuals usual environment. Tourism can either be domestic or international. Tourism is an essential life activity because it directly affects the economic, social, cultural and educational sectors. A majority of countries depend on tourism as one of the core sources of foreign exchange and income. However, tourism can be used for a greater good of humanity like promoting peace in the world (Kester 2014). In the argument of Barash and Webel (2013) peace is a term used to refer to the situations where there is no violence or conflicts. Tourism can be used to reduce the root causes of conflicts in situations likely to degenerate into conflicts and violence (Pernecky 2013). This essay critically analyses the potential of tourism as a force for peace. Discussion The prominence of tourism has contributed to the recent interest by scholars and other professionals in tourism as a potential for peacemaking (Miller, Rojek Urry 2014). Tourism involves bringing people together, embracing the connectedness of all things and people as well as learning about each other. Tourism plays a vital role in bringing the hosts and the guest together to learn about peace by appreciating and understanding diverse cultural values and beliefs and through connection with the natural word like wildlife, oceans, mountains and the waterfalls (Pizam 2006). According to Miller, et al., (2014) people who have interacted with different people of different background and cultures are more tolerable than people who have not interacted a lot. However, there is an argument that tourism is a beneficiary of peace and not a generator of peace. The assumption is based on the argument that tourism cannot exist without peace. Though true, the role of tourism in creating a peaceful co-existence between people of different nations cannot be underestimated (Pratt Liu 2016). In the argument of Hall, Timothy Duval (2004), tourism has the ability to drive peace, understanding and security. According to research, countries with a sustainable and more open tourism sector are more likely to experience high levels of positive peace (Hall, et al 2004). As such, tourism plays an important role in fostering peace and reconciliation among people and nations. For example, tourism contributed to the changes in the political relationship between China and the USA (Fan 2005). D'Amore (2008) argues that tourism is a major contributor to building trust and goodwill among people. The understanding of cultural beliefs helps change the attitudes and create a peaceful co-existence. The role of tourism in building peace is enhanced through its contribution to cultural preservation, environmental conservation and poverty alleviation. Tourism also acts as a crucial tool in reconciliation efforts after the war. In post-conflict societies, capacity building and training, community empowerment and engagement as well as private-public partnerships are some of the important factors in promoting a culture of peace through tourism. The proponents of peace tourism argue that it helps maintain peaceful co-existence among people of different culture, race, religion and nationalities. It also suppresses the tension that may exist between different people and nations. Tourism promotes global peace in the following ways; Promote National Integration According to Birch (2009, p. 23), National integration is the process of unifying people from the various background into one people. Conflicts within a country are likely to be motivated by the social differences. For example, the process of national integration can create a feeling of oneness between Muslims and the Christians as well as other religion or to reduce wars and conflicts between communities. In the argument of Prayag and Das (2016) tourism is not just an industry that earns revenue for the government but also it is used to promote national integration. Birch (2009) argues that tourism can be used to reduce animosity among religions by unifying people of different religions. For example, tourism can be used to bring Muslims and Christians together. Therefore, it is a strong weapon which if effectively used can enhance national understanding and help promote national integration. Creation of Employment Opportunities According to Webster and Ivanov (2013) being engaged in a productive engagement is one of the factors contributing to a happy life. Webster and Ivanov (2013) argue that a job defines an individual position in the society. The lack of employment opportunities can have dire consequences on society like depression; and if not addressed it can result in conflicts and violence in the society. For example, the terrorist usually target unemployed youths to recruitment into terrorism. Lack of employment especially among the youth is a major threat to peace in any country and even globally. Tourism creates employment opportunities in an economy, thus, reducing the threats of unemployment (Vanhove 2011). According to Leiper (2015) in Australia, tourism has directly employed more than 150, 000 people. It is likely that werent it for tourism all these people would be unemployed and would be forced to engage in criminal activities like stealing and terrorism. It has also created business opportunities for thousands of people worldwide. In the absence of tourism, a lot of people would be unemployed. Increase in the unemployment levels is likely to contribute to increased criminal activities. Tourism engages people in meaningful activities and helps reduce the criminal activities and conflicts associated with unemployment. Opportunity to Learn Cultural Differences Robinson and Boniface (2009) argue that most of the cultural conflicts are as a result of lack of understanding of the other people culture and beliefs. Cultural conflicts occur when people consider the traditions and beliefs of another cultural group as a challenge to their traditions and beliefs. Providing an opportunity for people to learn and understand other peoples culture and beliefs could potentially ease cultural conflicts. For example, the cultural conflict between the Jews, Christians and the Muslims is largely fuelled by ignorance of others cultural values and beliefs. Cultural tourism offers an opportunity to learn and appreciate the cultural practices of others. Learning the cultural practises and beliefs of others helps overcome cultural ignorance that lead to conflicts (Robinson Boniface 2009). As such, tourism provides an opportunity to learn new cultures and beliefs which as a result eases cultural conflicts. Promote Social Equality According to Peters (2004), one of the factors contributing to war and conflicts especially in the developing countries is the unequal distribution of wealth. Developing countries have a high risk of civil war than the developed countries. For example, a country with a $ 250 GDP per capita has a 15% chance of being involved in a civil war (Peters 2004). Peters (2004) further argues that the high risk of civil war in the developing countries is as a result of inequality distribution of resources, especially in the rural areas. The rural areas are less developed and characterised with high poverty levels. The unequal distribution of wealth creates tension which if not addressed is likely to lead to war or conflicts in a country. Peters (2004) claim that tourism promotes the process of wealth distribution, and capital formation, and provides an opportunity for infrastructure development in the rural areas. The infrastructure developments result in increased employment opportunities for the local people. Social inequalities if not checked can easily degenerate into conflicts. As such, it is important to promote social equality as a means to reducing internal fighting especially in the developing countries. Tourism is a significant factor in ensuring social equality and in uplifting the living conditions of rural people which reduce structural violence. Economic Growth Globally, Tourism is a major driver of economic development in most countries and it has contributed to 9.8% of the global GDP and created 10% of jobs in the global economy in the year 2014 (Lew 2015). Lew (2015) claims that over the years, tourism has notably continued to grow, thus, contributing to a significant portion of the global economic development. According to Peters (2004) studies show a close relationship between violent conflicts and economy. Conflicts occur as a result of an economic factor like poverty, which forces society to go into a conflict. Economic growth reduces the poverty levels in a country and is associated with low level of conflicts. Tourism being one of the factors contributing significantly to economic development acts as an agent to prevent conflict. In many countries, it has significantly contributed to the economic development. Economic development reduces the chances of war and conflicts likely to occur due to under development. Promotion of Cultural Exchange Newman (2009, p. 123) argue that one of the root causes of war and also conflicts is the cultural barriers among different communities and people. Breaking the cultural barrier can help promote peaceful co-existence among different communities. According to Ap and Var (2010), tourism encourages cultural exchange and break the cultural barrier that may exist between nations and people. Through cultural exchange people and nations appreciate the cultural practices of others. Over the centuries, international interactions have experienced many changes. The best bridge between different cultures is the cultural exchange. The Cultural Exchange provides an opportunity for people to better understand different cultures as well as the desires and motivations of various cultures. Tourism enables people to visit different places and learn new cultures. As a result, it promotes mutually beneficial relations and interactions between people of different nations and cultures. Promote Diplomacy According to McDonald and Bendahmane (2007), Diplomacy has an important role in avoiding war between nations. Poor Diplomatic relationship increase tension and can generate war and also conflicts among countries and people. McDonald and Bendahmane (2007) further argue that diplomacy helps in creating a culture of peace between countries. Tourism enhances diplomacy by improving citizen to-government, government-to-government, and citizen-to-citizen relationships (Fan 2005). Fan (2005) further argues that these types of relationship help supplement the high-level government diplomacy. As a result, tourism contributes to the improvement of relationships internationally at all levels. Improving relationships between different people and different nations is important in ensuring peaceful co-existence among people and nations. The Concept of Peace Tourism According to Miller, et al., (2014) the recent interest in tourism as a means of promoting peace and combating conflicts has led to the development of Peace tourism concept. The concept of peace tourism is intended to reduce the causes of conflicts and create solutions to the violence perceived situations (Blanchard Higgins-Desbiolles 2013). Blanchard Higgins-Desbiolles (2013) argue that the aim of the peace tourism is to create positive peace and sustainable development through the tourism industry. One of the advantages of peace tourism is that it can be used to prevent structural violence, mostly associated with prolonged conflicts. As such, it is relevant in the structural prevention of conflicts rather than direct conflicts. The structural prevention of conflict relates to establishing measures that prevent the worsening or development of the causes of conflicts. It is important to note that, tourism is a different form of conflict prevention, unlike direct prevention which in volves arbitration, mediation and negotiations. Tourism being a structural prevention method is synonymous with building lasting peace solutions that address the cultural, social and economic factors. If these factors are not addressed, they have the potential of causing conflicts and violence in the long run. Ensuring proper management of the tourism projects contribute to the peaceful co-existence by reducing the structural causes of violence (Litvin 2008). Addressing the structural causes of conflicts can help in promoting peace. According to Litvin (2008) the tourism peace theory provides insight on how tourism helps in suppressing conflicts. The tourism peace model emphasises on the benefits of sustainable and cooperative economic, cultural and political policies with the objective of eliminating cultural, structural and direct violence. Peace tourism emphasises more on the importance of positive peace rather than just eliminating direct violence. The concept of peace tourism has helped cross the regional, race and ethnic boundaries, thus, fostering global peace. Conclusion The world is continuously faced with the threat of conflicts and war. For this reason, appropriate measures must be put in place with the aim of reducing the causes of conflicts and violence. Addressing the root causes of the conflicts is the best long term strategy of overcoming the threat of war and conflicts facing the world. Tourism is one of the strategies increasingly gaining recognition as a means of addressing the root causes of conflicts and violence in the world. The proponents of peace tourism argue that tourism can be used to address the social, economic and environmental factors likely to ignite conflicts and violence. One of the benefits of tourism is its ability to unite people of different background and to create a feeling of oneness. Though, peace tourism is a relatively new concept it is a power weapon in promoting global peace. Peace emphasises on the benefits of sustainable and cooperative economic, cultural and political policies with the objective of eliminatin g cultural, structural and direct violence. Reference List Ap, J. Var, T. (2010). Does tourism promote world peace?. Tourism Management, 11(3), pp.267-273. Barash, D.P. Webel, C.P. (2013). Peace and conflict studies. SAGE Publications, Incorporated. Birch, A.H. (2009). Nationalism and national integration. Psychology Press. Blanchard, L.A. Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2013). Peace through tourism: Promoting human security through international citizenship (Vol. 39). Routledge. D'Amore, L.J. (2008). TourismA vital force for peace. Tourism Management, 9(2), pp.151-154. Fan, S.P. (2005). A policy analysis on China's tourism-based diplomacy: A case study of outbound tourism developments. Mainland China Studies, 48(2), p.61 Hall, C.M., Timothy, D.J. Duval, D.T. (2004). Security and tourism: towards a new understanding?. Journal of Travel Tourism Marketing, 15(2-3), pp.1-18. Horner, S. Swarbrooke, J. (2016). Consumer behaviour in tourism. Routledge. Kester, J.G. (2014). 2013 International Tourism Results and Prospects for 2014. UNWTO News. Leiper, N. (2015). A conceptual analysis of tourism-supported employment which reduces the incidence of exaggerated, misleading statistics about jobs. Tourism Management, 20(5), pp.605-613. Lew, A.A., (2015). Tourism's role in the global economy. Tourism Geographies, 13(1), pp.148-151. Litvin, S.W., (2008). Tourism: The world's peace industry?. Journal of Travel Research, 37(1), pp.63-66. McDonald, J.W. Bendahmane, D.B. eds. (2007). Conflict resolution: Track two diplomacy. Foreign Service Institute, US Dept. of State. Miller, H., Rojek, C. Urry, J. (2014). Tourism and Peacean Emerging Field of Action and Research. and Peace, p.17. Newman, J.S. (2009). Understanding international conflicts. Longman. Pernecky, T. (2013). Re-examining the ability of mass tourism to promote peace. CAUTHE 2013: Tourism and Global Change: On the Edge of Something Big, p.604. Peters, P.E. (2004). Inequality and social conflict over land in Africa. Journal of Agrarian Change, 4(3), pp.269-314. Pizam, A. (2006). Does tourism promote peace and understanding between unfriendly nations. Tourism, crime and international security issues, pp.203-213. Pratt, S. Liu, A. (2016). Does tourism really lead to peace? A global view. International Journal of Tourism Research, 18(1), pp.82-90. Prayag, G. Das, S. (2016). Tourism in India. The Routledge Handbook of Tourism in Asia. Robinson, M. Boniface, P. (2009). Tourism and cultural conflicts. CAB International. Vanhove, N. (2011). Tourism and employment. International Journal of Tourism Management, 2(3), pp.162-175. Webster, C. Ivanov, S.H. (2013). Tourism as a force for political stability. The International Handbook on Tourism and Peace(Forthcoming).